Hydroelectricity is the term referring to electricity
generated by hydropower; the production of electrical power
through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 percent of global
electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity production
in 2010,[1]
and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25 years.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[1]
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[1] Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.[1] Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[2]
At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power plants were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors. By 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power plants on federal land and water. As the power plants became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created.[4] Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had began a series of western U.S. irrigation projects in the early 20th century was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam.[7] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing the Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency.[8]
Hydroelectric power plants continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty.[9] Hoover Dam's initial 1,345 MW power plant was the world's largest hydroelectric power plant in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942.[10] The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as the largest, producing 14,000 MW but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22,500 MW. Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Paraguay and Brazil, with over 85% of their electricity. The United States currently has over 2,000 hydroelectric power plants that supply 6.4% of its total electrical production output, which is 49% of its renewable electricity.[4]
Cross section of a conventional hydroelectric dam.
Measurement of the tailrace and forebay rates at the Limestone Generating Station in
Manitoba,
Canada.
Small hydro plants may be connected to conventional electrical
distribution networks as a source of low-cost renewable energy.
Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that
would be uneconomic to serve from a network, or in areas where there is
no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects
usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are
seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large
hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on the
balance between stream flow and power production.
,
where
The Ffestiniog Power Station can
generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of
the demand arising.
Hydroelectric plants have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years.[18] Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.
Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric plant may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation.[19]
Large reservoirs required for the operation of hydroelectric power
stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams,
destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley
forests, marshland and grasslands. The loss of land is often exacerbated
by habitat fragmentation of surrounding
areas caused by the reservoir.[24]
Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks.[25] Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.
Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate change.[28] One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%.[28] Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heaving reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century.[28]
The Hoover
Dam in the United States is a large conventional
dammed-hydro facility, with an installed capacity of 2,080 MW.
In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay.[31]
The Banqiao Dam failure in Southern China directly resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless. Also, the creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2000 people died.[33]
Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1967, causing 39 deaths with the Toccoa Flood, ten years after its power plant was decommissioned.[34]
Compared to wind farms, hydroelectricity power plants have a more predictable load factor. If the project has a storage reservoir, it can generate power when needed. Hydroelectric plants can be easily regulated to follow variations in power demand.
World renewable energy share (2008)
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generated 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Austria, Switzerland, and Venezuela have a majority of the internal electric energy production from hydroelectric power. Paraguay produces 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric dams, and exports 90% of its production to Brazil and to Argentina. Norway produces 98–99% of its electricity from hydroelectric sources.[35]
There are now three hydroelectric plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[1]
A hydro-electric plant rarely operates at its full power rating over a full year; the ratio between annual average power and installed capacity rating is the capacity factor. The installed capacity is the sum of all generator nameplate power ratings.[36]
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[1]
The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[1] Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife.[1] Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants.[2]
History
Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the mid-1770s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics.[3] The growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well.[4] In 1878 the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland, England by William George Armstrong. It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery.[5] The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 near Niagara Falls in the U.S. side began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power plant, the Vulcan Street Plant, began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin, with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.[6] By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power plants in the U.S. and Canada. By 1889 there were 200 in the U.S. alone.[3]At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power plants were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble, France held the International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism with over one million visitors. By 1920 as 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power plants on federal land and water. As the power plants became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes to include flood control, irrigation and navigation. Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development and federally owned corporations, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created.[4] Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had began a series of western U.S. irrigation projects in the early 20th century was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam.[7] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing the Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency.[8]
Hydroelectric power plants continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as white coal for its power and plenty.[9] Hoover Dam's initial 1,345 MW power plant was the world's largest hydroelectric power plant in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942.[10] The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as the largest, producing 14,000 MW but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22,500 MW. Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Paraguay and Brazil, with over 85% of their electricity. The United States currently has over 2,000 hydroelectric power plants that supply 6.4% of its total electrical production output, which is 49% of its renewable electricity.[4]
Generating methods
Conventional (dams)
Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. A large pipe (the "penstock") delivers water to the turbine.[11]Pumped-storage
Main article: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity
This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by
moving water between reservoirs at
different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess
generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir.
When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower
reservoir through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes currently provide
the most commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage is
not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings.[12]Run-of-the-river
Main article: Run-of-the-river
hydroelectricity
Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no
reservoir capacity, so that the water coming from upstream must be used
for generation at that moment, or must be allowed to bypass the dam. In
the United States, run of the river hydropower could potentially provide
60,000 MW (about 13.7% of total use in 2011 if continuously available).[13]Tide
Main article: Tide power
See also: List of tidal power stations
A tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of
ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if
conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power
during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use
water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as
undershot waterwheels. Tidal power is viable in a
relatively small number of locations around the world. In Great Britain,
there are eight sites that could be developed, which have the potential
to generate 20% of the electricity used in 2012.[14]Underground
Main article: Underground power station
An underground power station makes
use of a large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a
waterfall or mountain lake. An underground tunnel is constructed to
take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in an
underground cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a
horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway.
Sizes and capacities of hydroelectric facilities
Large facilities
See also: List of largest
power stations in the world and List of largest
hydroelectric power stations
Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of
large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts to more than 10 GW are generally considered large
hydroelectric facilities. Currently, only three facilities over 10 GW (10,000
MW) are in operation worldwide; Three Gorges Dam at 22.5 GW, Itaipu
Dam at 14 GW, and Guri Dam
at 10.2 GW. Large-scale hydroelectric power
stations are more commonly seen as the largest power producing
facilities in the world, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of
generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations.| Rank | Station | Country | Location | Capacity (MW) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Three Gorges Dam |  China |
30°49′15″N 111°00′08″E / 30.82083°N 111.00222°E | 20,300 |
| 2 | Itaipu Dam |  Brazil Paraguay |
25°24′31″S 54°35′21″W / 25.40861°S 54.58917°W | 14,000 |
| 3 | Guri Dam |  Venezuela |
07°45′59″N 62°59′57″W / 7.76639°N 62.99917°W | 10,200 |
| 4 | Tucurui Dam | Brazil |
03°49′53″S 49°38′36″W / 3.83139°S 49.64333°W | 8,370 |
| 5 | Grand Coulee Dam |  United
States |
47°57′23″N 118°58′56″W / 47.95639°N 118.98222°W | 6,809 |
Small
Main article: Small
hydro
Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power
on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition
of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the
upper limit of what can be termed small hydro. This may be stretched to
25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United
States. Small-scale hydroelectricity production grew by 28% during
2008 from 2005, raising the total world small-hydro capacity to 85 GW. Over 70% of this was
in China
(65 GW), followed by Japan (3.5 GW), the United
States (3 GW), and India (2 GW).[15]
Micro
Main article: Micro
hydro
Micro hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power
installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can
provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes
connected to electric power networks. There are many of these
installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as
they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of
fuel.[16]
Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic
solar energy systems because in many areas, water flow, and thus
available hydro power, is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a
minimum.Pico
Main article: Pico
hydro
Pico hydro is a term used for hydroelectric power
generation of under 5 kW. It is useful in small, remote
communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For
example, to power one or two fluorescent light bulbs and a TV or radio
for a few homes.[17]
Even smaller turbines of 200-300W may power a single home in a
developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). Pico-hydro setups
typically are run-of-the-river,
meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the
flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before
returning it to the stream.Calculating available power
Main article: Hydropower
A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a
hydroelectric plant is: ,
whereis Power in watts,
is the density of water (~1000 kg/m3),
is height in meters,
is flow rate in cubic meters per second,
is acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m/s2,
is a coefficient of efficiency ranging from 0 to 1. Efficiency is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines.
Advantages and disadvantages
 |
This article contains a pro and con list. (November 2012) |
Advantages
Flexibility
Hydro is a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands.[1]Low power costs
The major advantage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the cost of fuel. The cost of operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to increases in the cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are needed. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour.[1]Hydroelectric plants have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years.[18] Operating labor cost is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation.
Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric plant may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation.[19]
Suitability for industrial applications
While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington, United States for American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point.Reduced CO2 emissions
Since hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels, they are claimed to not directly produce carbon dioxide. While some carbon dioxide is produced during manufacture and construction of the project, this is a tiny fraction of the operating emissions of equivalent fossil-fuel electricity generation. One measurement of greenhouse gas related and other externality comparison between energy sources can be found in the ExternE project by the Paul Scherrer Institut and the University of Stuttgart which was funded by the European Commission.[20] According to that study, hydroelectricity produces the least amount of greenhouse gases and externality of any energy source.[21] Coming in second place was wind, third was nuclear energy, and fourth was solar photovoltaic.[21] The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates. The above study was for local energy in Europe; presumably similar conditions prevail in North America and Northern Asia, which all see a regular, natural freeze/thaw cycle (with associated seasonal plant decay and regrowth). Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions, the lower latitude regions of the earth, as it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants in tropical regions produce a larger amount of the greenhouse gas methane.[22]Other uses of the reservoir
Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports, and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with a relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project.[23]Disadvantages
Ecosystem damage and loss of land
Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of the plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks.[25] Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed.
Siltation and flow shortage
When water flows it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during a flood and fail.[26][27]Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as a result of climate change.[28] One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%.[28] Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heaving reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in the rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century.[28]
Methane emissions (from reservoirs)
See also: Environmental
impacts of reservoirs
Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions, as it has
been noted that the reservoirs of power plants in tropical regions
produce substantial amounts of methane.
This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment, and forming
methane, a greenhouse gas. According to the World Commission on Dams report,[29]
where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less
than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the
forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the
reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher
than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant.[30]In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate the effect of forest decay.[31]
Relocation
Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40-80 million people worldwide.[32]Failure risks
See also: Dam
failure and List of
hydroelectric power station failures
Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large
volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters
or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and
infrastructure. Dam failures have been some of the largest man-made
disasters in history.The Banqiao Dam failure in Southern China directly resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless. Also, the creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2000 people died.[33]
Smaller dams and micro hydro facilities create less risk, but can form continuing hazards even after being decommissioned. For example, the small Kelly Barnes Dam failed in 1967, causing 39 deaths with the Toccoa Flood, ten years after its power plant was decommissioned.[34]
Comparison with other methods of power generation
Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion, including pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, dust, and mercury in the coal. Hydroelectricity also avoids the hazards of coal mining and the indirect health effects of coal emissions. Compared to nuclear power, hydroelectricity generates no nuclear waste, has none of the dangers associated with uranium mining, nor nuclear leaks. Unlike uranium, hydroelectricity is also a renewable energy source.Compared to wind farms, hydroelectricity power plants have a more predictable load factor. If the project has a storage reservoir, it can generate power when needed. Hydroelectric plants can be easily regulated to follow variations in power demand.
World hydroelectric capacity
See also: List of countries by electricity production from renewable
sources and Cost of electricity by source
The ranking of hydro-electric capacity is either by actual annual
energy production or by installed capacity power rating. Hydro accounted
for 16 percent of global electricity consumption, and 3,427
terawatt-hours of electricity production in 2010, which continues the
rapid rate of increase experienced between 2003 and 2009.[1]Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generated 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Austria, Switzerland, and Venezuela have a majority of the internal electric energy production from hydroelectric power. Paraguay produces 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric dams, and exports 90% of its production to Brazil and to Argentina. Norway produces 98–99% of its electricity from hydroelectric sources.[35]
There are now three hydroelectric plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[1]
A hydro-electric plant rarely operates at its full power rating over a full year; the ratio between annual average power and installed capacity rating is the capacity factor. The installed capacity is the sum of all generator nameplate power ratings.[36]
| Country | Annual hydroelectric production (TWh) |
Installed capacity (GW) |
Capacity factor |
% of total capacity |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| China |
652.05 | 196.79 | 0.37 | 22.25 |
 Canada |
369.5 | 88.974 | 0.59 | 61.12 |
| Brazil |
363.8 | 69.080 | 0.56 | 85.56 |
| United
States |
250.6 | 79.511 | 0.42 | 5.74 |
 Russia |
167.0 | 45.000 | 0.42 | 17.64 |
 Norway |
140.5 | 27.528 | 0.49 | 98.25 |
 India |
115.6 | 33.600 | 0.43 | 15.80 |
| Venezuela |
85.96 | 14.622 | 0.67 | 69.20 |
 Japan |
69.2 | 27.229 | 0.37 | 7.21 |
 Sweden |
65.5 | 16.209 | 0.46 | 44.34 |
Major projects under construction
| Name | Maximum Capacity | Country | Construction started | Scheduled completion | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Xiluodu Dam | 12,600 MW | China | December 26, 2005 | 2015 | Construction once stopped due to lack of environmental impact study. |
| Belo Monte Dam | 11,181 MW | Brazil | March, 2011 | 2015 | Preliminary construction underway.[38] Construction suspended by court order Aug 2012[39] |
| Siang Upper HE Project | 11,000 MW | India | April, 2009 | 2024 | Multi-phase construction over a period of 15 years. Construction was delayed due to dispute with China.[40] |
| TaSang Dam | 7,110 MW | Burma | March, 2007 | 2022 | Controversial 228 meter tall dam with capacity to produce 35,446 GWh annually. |
| Xiangjiaba Dam | 6,400 MW | China | November 26, 2006 | 2015 | |
| Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam | 6,000 MW | Ethiopia | 2011 | 2017 | Located in the upper Nile Basin, drawing complaint from Egypt |
| Nuozhadu Dam | 5,850 MW | China | 2006 | 2017 | |
| Jinping 2 Hydropower Station | 4,800 MW | China | January 30, 2007 | 2014 | To build this dam, 23 families and 129 local residents need to be moved. It works with Jinping 1 Hydropower Station as a group. |
| Diamer-Bhasha Dam | 4,500 MW | Pakistan | October 18, 2011 | 2023 | |
| Jinping 1 Hydropower Station | 3,600 MW | China | November 11, 2005 | 2014 | |
| Jirau Dam | 3,300 MW | Brazil | 2008 | 2013 | Construction halted in March 2011 due to worker riots.[41] |
| Guanyinyan Dam | 3,000 MW | China | 2008 | 2015 | Construction of the roads and spillway started. |
| Lianghekou Dam[42] | 3,000 MW | China | 2009 | 2015 | |
| Dagangshan Dam | 2,600 MW | China | August 15, 2008[43] | 2014 | |
| Liyuan Dam | 2,400 MW | China | 2008[44] | 2013 | |
| Tocoma Dam Bolívar State | 2,160 MW | Venezuela | 2004 | 2014 | This power plant would be the last development in the Low Caroni Basin, bringing the total to six power plants on the same river, including the 10,000MW Guri Dam.[45] |
| Ludila Dam | 2,100 MW | China | 2007 | 2015 | Construction halt due to lack of the environmental assessment. |
| Shuangjiangkou Dam | 2,000 MW | China | December, 2007[46] | 2018 | The dam will be 312 m high. |
| Ahai Dam | 2,000 MW | China | July 27, 2006 | 2015 | |
| Teles Pires Dam | 1,820 MW | Brazil | 2011 | 2015 | |
| Lower Subansiri Dam | 2,000 MW | India | 2005 | 2014 |
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